Project description
State of the art and rationale
Existing freshwater resources are threatened by overexploitation due to population growth, urbanisation, and climate change and many regions experience water shortage especially during dry seasons. South Africa is a water-scarce country with precipitation seasonality [1]. During the 2017-19 Southern African drought, water suppliers experienced severe difficulties supplying enough water to the population and many rivers dried out. Climate change predicts lower rainfall and higher temperatures for South Africa, which means that water scarcity will become even more critical and improved utilization of available water resources is therefore urgent.
Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) is a commonly used technique to improve water quality and to store water for later use in areas with precipitation seasonality and it is a low-energy and low-cost water-recycling technology used worldwide [2]. Water, often unfit for drinking, is infiltrated through soil and aquifer sediments, or injected directly into aquifers, thereby improving the water quality and recharging groundwater resources for later recovery. Groundwater is preferred to surface water for drinking due to higher water quality, less vulnerability to drought and pathogenic pollution, and in arid regions simply because no other water resources are available [3]. Extensive abstraction of groundwater may, however, lead to aquifer depletion, which creates derived problems including saltwater intrusion, streams impairment, wetlands desiccation, and land subsidence [4]. The only practical way to restore or prevent overexploitation of aquifers is by replenishing aquifer water by MAR and it has been estimated that the groundwater resource can be more than doubled by applying MAR [5].
A major concern with MAR is that the available source water has the potential to contaminate the aquifer with organic chemicals, and inorganic nutrients, including pesticides, personal care products, pharmaceuticals [6], and nitrogen species [7]. Some of these compounds are removed during passage of the water through the soil and sediment layers, but the rates may vary dependent on site-specific conditions [8] while others are not degraded at all [9;10]. Spreading of pathogens and antimicrobial (e.g. antibiotics) resistance genes (ARGs) is also a concern [11;12]; although these may be eliminated during MAR [13]. The mechanism behind this elimination is not fully understood. In fact, the reduction of pathogens during sediment passage depends on several processes, including deactivation, physical filtering, and adsorption/adhesion mechanisms that are influenced by both individual pathogen properties and sediment characteristics [14].
Although MAR has been used for decades, the technique is often operated as a black box without knowledge of the processes involved, which makes it difficult to use experience from one site to another. In the MARSA project, research will open the black box and identify key processes governing the leaching of bacteria, organic contaminants, and inorganic nutrients to the groundwater. This will include:
- Establishment of reactive barriers at MAR facilities to provide a sequence of redox conditions enabling more contaminants to be degraded
- Stimulation of aerobic degradation processes by adding oxidising agents during recharge of water into anaerobic aquifers
- Investigation of relevant pretreatment technologies for different water sources
- Development of a toolbox for establishing new MAR sites
- Development of an addendum to existing guidelines for establishment and long-term operation of MAR sites.
MARSA addresses specifically the call by providing next generation MAR technologies for improved and more efficient groundwater utilization. Furthermore, MARSA will unlock alternative sources of water and based on the outlined research it will provide required new monitoring schemes necessary for implementation of the technology according to the call.
The primary aim of MARSA is to develop MAR technologies that allow for a broader span of water resources to be used for MAR, including storm water, river water, saline water, and even reclaimed water (treated wastewater). The research provides establishment of new monitoring strategies for the technologies and an assessment of the water saving achieved by implementing MAR on a larger scale in South Africa with focus on the West Coast District Municipality.
It is hypothesised that improved removal of organic pollutants, nitrogen species, and pathogens can be achieved by establishment of reactive barriers or injection of oxidizing agents to anaerobic aquifers during recharge as different redox environments are thus created.
Research questions include:
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- Will the establishment of reactive barriers with, e.g. organic compost at MAR facilities cause more pollutants to be degraded?
- Can aerobic degradation processes be secured by injection of oxidising agents to anaerobic aquifers and what are the adverse effects, e.g. precipitation of metals and clogging?
- What is the salinity limit for waters to be used for MAR?
- What types of pretreatment methods could be introduced to make degradation of certain compounds even more efficient?
- What is the long-term sustainability of MAR under different geological and chemical regimes?
- What are the impacts of increased use of MAR in South Africa in terms of drinking-water availability and ecological and socio-economic benefits for water supply?
Novel approaches in MARSA include control of the MAR environment by reactive barriers and oxidizing agents without creating environments for increased spread of pathogens and antimicrobial resistance. Some water types such as reclaimed water require pretreatment for safe recycling via MAR, due to the presence of persistent organic pollutants, pathogenic bacteria, and antimicrobial resistance. Pretreatment options may include membrane filtration [15], ozonation, or UV-treatment [16]. These technologies can greatly reduce pathogens, ARGs and most organic pollutants, but they may also leave the purified water with oxidised carbon residues. This, however, can also be beneficial as carbon residues has been shown to stimulate cometabolic degradation of some organic pollutants during MAR [17].
The research will focus on the Langebaan road aquifer and Atlantis aquifer field sites, both along the West Coast of South Africa. At present MAR is not applied at the Langebaan road aquifer site, but infrastructure exists, for infiltration of nearby Berg River water, either by direct well injection or pond infiltration. As the salinity varies along the river, it is most suitable for studying at what concentrations saline water can be used directly for MAR or where a pretreatment is required. The Atlantis site in contrast, already has an active MAR system, which has been in operation for over 40 years using an inlet of a mixture of reclaimed- and storm water infiltrated via infiltration ponds. Although the site has been running successfully, there have been incidents of low-quality water entering the system and the facility could benefit largely from a built-in treatment technology to aid removing potential harmful constituents from the source water. The impacts of climate change are apparent at both sites as seen from fluctuating groundwater tables and flow velocities at the Berg River. Storage of water for later reuse by Aquifer Storage and Recovery (ASR), a variant of MAR, has therefore drawn special attention as a technology to provide safe water to the public during droughts.
The implementation of MAR may also affect the ecology of groundwater fed ecosystems, like wetlands, tributaries, and springs. The ground- and surface water bodies of these systems are tightly linked and, e.g. overexploitation of groundwater resources for ASR may cause desiccation of these ecosystems. The inverse is similarly true, if the amount of water added to the groundwater is increased rewetting may occur causing change on vegetation and wildlife. A thorough assessment of the impact of MAR on surface water ecosystems must be carried out before MAR can be implemented at a larger scale according to legal requirements. In MARSA we will use the Wetland Classification and Risk Assessment Index to assess the natural state of the surface water ecosystems of the field sites [18].
In MARSA we will carry out feasibility studies, as flow-through columns, first in Denmark (WP1) and later in South Africa (WP2), to investigate the capacity of South African aquifer sediments to remove organic pollutants, nitrogen species, pathogens, and ARGs present in the Berg River and in source water to the Atlantis-MAR facility [19; 20]. Then, based on these studies, MAR options will be further demonstrated in pilot scale at field conditions in South Africa using real source water from the sites (WP3). Finally, the potential of implementation of MAR for the groundwater resource in the West Coast District Municipality will be assessed considering the use of a broader span of water (WP4; figure 1).
Figure 1:MARSA research outline. The flags indicate whether the joint research is taking place in Denmark or South Africa.
Two postdocs will be hired, one in Denmark and one in South Africa working closely together on both the feasibility and field studies. A PhD student financed by DWS will contribute to the research collaborating with the postdocs on fieldwork in South Africa.
Relevance
The MARSA project supports the overall aim of the Danish Strategic Sector Cooperation as it contributes with knowledge to new solutions to mitigate water scarcity in South Africa. MARSA addresses specifically the announced research themes by providing next generation MAR technologies for improved and more efficient groundwater utilization. Furthermore, MARSA will unlock alternative sources of water and provide required new monitoring schemes necessary for implementation of the technology. The MARSA project relates directly to the Sustainable Development Goals 2030 in South Africa on Responsible Consumption and Production (12), Clean Water and Sanitation (6) specifically 6.3, 6.4, and 6.6.1, Life on Land (15) and Good Health and Well-being (3). Furthermore, it relates to the strategic direction and goals of the South African National Water and Sanitation Master Plan [21], National Water Resource Strategy [22], National Groundwater Strategy [23], and Artificial Recharge Strategy [24] of South Africa. The project will significantly contribute to the partners’ strategies on sustainable water-resource management including development of water-purification technologies.
Objectives
The overall objective of MARSA is to provide new water recycling tools to be used by water managers in South Africa and globally to combat water scarcity. The research builds on MAR, a water recycling technology already used in South Africa at many places. By introducing barriers at MAR facilities as well as oxidising agents to stimulate aerobic degradation processes, the range of water qualities that can be used for MAR will be increased. In the long term, more water of lower quality, including reclaimed water, may then be used for MAR allowing a larger amount of water to be reused and less discharge to aquatic ecosystems. The potentials of relevant pretreatment technologies and the determination of salinities limiting water recycling via MAR will further increase safe use of lower water qualities for MAR.
Expected outcomes and outputs
The primary outcomes of MARSA will be an extensive capacity building on MAR in South Africa, including 1) the setup of feasibility studies assessing potentials for MAR at a given location and determination of actions to be taken to improve attenuation of organic pollutants, pathogens, and ARGs (outcome 1+2), 2) Field-scale demonstration of MARSA technologies to improve pollutant attenuation (outcome 3), and 3) a model for the development of groundwater use in South Africa considering an increased range of water qualities that can be recirculated via MAR after implementation of MARSA technologies (outcome 4). Connected outputs include 1) common protocols for analysis of organic pollutants, pathogens, and ARGs, 2) reports on characterisation of field sites including geology, geohydrology, pollutants in source waters for MAR, impact of MAR on riparian ecosystems, socio-economic and legal preconditions for MAR implementation, and authorities, utilities and the public preparedness for increased use of groundwater, 4) an addendum on implementation of MARSA technologies to the existing South African MAR guideline, and 5) joint scientific publications with authors from both South Africa and Denmark.
Methodology
The project will be structured in 4 well-integrated work packages (WPs), each headed by a WP leader. WP1 focuses on the establishment of methods to assess the feasibility of different MAR applications in terms of removal of organic contaminants, pathogens, and antimicrobial resistance and further technologies to enhance the removal of these pollutants will be developed. In WP2 the effects of different MAR applications on aquifer geochemistry and microbiology will be investigated, including metal (iron and manganese) precipitation, which may cause clogging. Together, these WPs will bring progress to front-line research in MAR technologies and based on this, in WP3 the most promising MAR applications will be tested at field scale. Finally, WP4 will reach out by investigating the impact of further implementation of MAR using also lower water qualities on the increased availability of groundwater for water supply in South Africa (figure1).
Figure 2: The MARSA Column set up
WP1: Feasibility studies (GEUS, UFS) aims to develop common analytical tools to be used in both Denmark and South Africa. The research includes 1) design and operation of a model filtration reactor system that simulates MAR (output 1.1); 2) development of protocols for the analysis of organic pollutants, pathogenic indicators, and ARGs (output 1.2); 3) feasibility studies and writing of joint scientific publication (output 1.3). Several target organic pollutants will be selected based on compounds typically present in reclaimed, storm, and river waters including pharmaceuticals, antibiotics, and pesticide residues, with the emphasis on compounds present in the inlet water at the field-scale MAR facility of WP3 (Berg River water; South African reclaimed water). Analytical protocols will be developed for these pollutants based on UPLC-MS and LC-HRMS. Common protocols for the analysis of indicator pathogens and ARGs will be developed as well, the latter using qPCR of selected ARGs (e.g. blaTEM, blaCTX, ErmB, ErmF, TetA, TetM, TetW, Sul1 and Sul2). The reactor system will be built as a series of columns (6-8) with heights of 0.5 m and diameters of approximately 6 cm (figure 2), packed with sand, and seeded with fresh activated sludge from a local wastewater treatment plant. The system will function as submerged continuous flow fixed bed filters that can be operated at realistic hydraulic retention times being typical 12-24 h at MAR facilities. The columns will be equipped with sampling ports for sampling of filter material for e.g. nucleic acid extraction (DNA) and assessment of biofilm formation, and sampling of water for monitoring of O2, pH, organic pollutants, bacteria, ARGs, and other relevant parameters. The inlet will be synthetic reclaimed water added 5 to 10 organic pollutants.
The model MAR system will be used to test the feasibility of using barriers of e.g. compost, wood chips, or other residual materials to improve the attenuation of organic pollutants, pathogens, and ARGs. Furthermore, it will be tested whether addition of auxiliary carbon sources can stimulate cometabolic degradation of otherwise recalcitrant pollutants.
WP2: Effects of MAR on groundwater geochemistry and pretreatment requirements (UFS, GEUS) focuses on how infiltration of different water sources affects aquifer geochemistry, including clogging, and how to monitor this. The research will use the same MAR model system as in WP1, but here it will be setup in South Africa with the same inlet water as used in WP3. First, the columns will be setup in a South African laboratory, later at Atlantis WWTP or the Langebaan Road field site (output 2.1). The model system will be used to study the effects of adding oxidising agents, fluctuating groundwater tables, and salinities on attenuation of organic pollutants, pathogens, and ARGs, metal release and precipitation (e.g. As, Ni, Fe, and Mn), and clogging (output 2.2). Pretreatment technologies commonly used at WWTPs will be identified and evaluated in terms of enhancing pollutant removal during MAR. Based on results from laboratory columns using the actual source water on location, the need for introducing such pretreatment technologies to obtain more efficient removal of contaminants will be suggested.
WP3: Field-scale studies (UWC, UFS, GEUS, DWS) aims at testing the concepts developed in WP1-2 at larger scale. Field-scale MAR studies will be carried out at the Langebaan road aquifer and Atlantis field sites using Berg River water or mixtures of reclaimed- and stormwater respectively as source waters. The field-scale studies will be carried out using infiltration ponds or in case approval of specific treatments options cannot be granted, by use of columns on location.
Characterisation of the geology, geohydrology, and infiltration capacity: The geology and geohydrology of the Langebaan road aquifer and Atlantis sites will be characterised based on existing literature and borehole data as input to geological models (output 3.1). For the Langebaan road aquifer SkyTEM data are available and will be included as well. The infiltration capacity will be determined using permeability tests and used to select areas best suited for water infiltration either by direct well injection or via infiltration ponds. Additional drillings will be performed at these areas for further analysis of groundwater chemistry and to obtain sediments for the column experiments (WP2).
Monitoring of groundwater system and potential source water qualities: Before the establishment of the field-scale MAR facilities both potential source waters and groundwater from the two field sites will be thoroughly characterized to obtain baseline values (output 3.2). The following parameters will be determined by sampling of water from existing or drilled boreholes: inorganic constituents including trace metals (e.g. Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, Na+, Cl–, HCO3–/Alkalinity, SO42-, NO3–, As, Ni, Fe, Ni, and Mn), dissolved organic carbon (DOC), electrical conductivity (EC), and pH. The source waters (Berg River Water and Atlantis reclaimed water) will be further characterized for presence of organic pollutants (pharmaceuticals, antibiotics, pesticides), pathogens (E. coli, faecal coliforms), and ARGs as described in WP1, the latter being of special relevance to the Atlantis site.
The potential impacts of MAR on associated wetlands, pans, and springs: The Wetland Classification and Risk Assessment Index will be used to assess the natural state of groundwater surface water ecosystems at the two field sites. Based on the results suggestions for how the index can be used to assess impacts of MAR on groundwater feed ecosystems will be provided (output 3.3) as input to the MAR-guideline development of WP4.
Figure 3: Infiltration pond with monitoring wells. The Green line shows the reactive barrier
Establishment of water infiltration sites and barriers: Infiltration ponds with reactive barriers for recharge of Berg River water will be established at the site and improvement of the water quality will be measured during groundwater discharge back to the river (figure 3; output 3.4). Such system allows safe testing of the barrier concept and assessment of MAR for aquifer storage and recovery. Activities at the site include 1) establishment of infiltration ponds and monitoring wells, 2) selection of barrier material and treatment options based on results from WP1 and WP2, and 3) monitoring of selected parameters including organic pollutants, pathogens, and ARGs with time. The monitoring will take place during four intense monitoring campaigns, each one lasting 2 weeks. All partners will participate in planning and realization of these campaigns. The campaigns include sampling of sediments, groundwater from monitoring wells, and Berg River water. The samples will be analysed for the presence of inorganic constituents, selected organic pollutants, and ARGs as above. The infiltration ponds will be placed were clay layers are thin or absent based on the geological characterization (output 3.1).
The Atlantis site already has an active MAR system that recharges a mixture of reclaimed water and stormwater via infiltration ponds to the groundwater. To investigate whether this system can be improved by the incorporation reactive barriers, columns will be setup on-site and fed real reclaimed water from the same wastewater treatment plant as used for the full-scale MAR facility (output 3.2). The barrier materials and treatment options will be selected based on results from WP1 and WP2. The outlet will be analysed for selected pollutants, pathogens, and ARGs as above. Based on the results suggestions for the implementation of barriers at the Atlantis facility will be provided.
WP4: Groundwater resource development by implementation of MAR in South Africa (Rambøll, UWC, UFS, GEUS, DWS). Impacts of further implementation of MAR on the availability of groundwater for water supply in South Africa will be studied with focus on the West Coast District Municipality. The following tasks are included: 1) Modelling of the potential for MAR in the West Coast District Municipality taking into consideration MARSA technologies, available water resources, geology, and infiltration capacities , 2) expansion of existing guidelines on MAR to South African conditions, and 3) identification of socio-economic preconditions including innovation preparedness among utilities and authorities and investment potentials, and legal requirements.
Modelling the potential for MAR in the West Coast District Municipality: Groundwater accounts for only 2% of the water supply in the City of Cape Town [25; 26], but after the drought in 2018 it is intended to increase this amount substantially. The available groundwater resource will be determined for the Langebaan Road Aquifer and based on this extended to the whole West Coast District Municipality considering the different aquifer systems within the region (output 4.1). The MAR potential will then be determined based on hydraulic modelling of the infiltration capacity and surface water availability. The total water resource available, including both ground- and surface water, will be calculated for the current and future climate situations and divided into wet and dry periods. The surface water resource of the Langebaan Road Aquifer site will be calculated by an integrated surface-groundwater model supplemented by GIS-analyses of the water balance of the whole West Coast District Municipality. Both water quantities and qualities will be mapped to determine the water resources most suitable for the improved MAR developed in WP1-3. The available groundwater resource will be estimated based on state-of-the-art principles for sustainable groundwater abstraction [27; 28, 29], both for the present situation and a situation where MAR has been implemented widely. Advanced 3-D geological- and hydrological modelling that includes saltwater intrusion will be used using existing data and outcomes from WP3 as input. Based on the modelling, the impact of MAR on groundwater quantity and quality as well as groundwater dependent ecosystems will be determined.
Socio-economic preconditions: To reach out and promote further use of groundwater and MAR in the public water supply in South Africa, the cost of improved MAR utilization will be estimated including expenses to pretreatments, feasibility studies, construction, and operation and maintenance. This will be combined with a detailed mapping of socio-economic preconditions and legal requirements, innovation preparedness among utilities and authorities, and investment potentials (output 4.2). The study will include interviews with water utilities and municipalities within the West Coast District Municipality. Furthermore, the current water legislation and tariff system will be reviewed and suggestions for changes will be made if required for implementation of MAR and for increased use of groundwater in water supply at larger scale. Roadmaps for implementation of MAR in water supply will be designed for the utilities including both technical, economic and legal aspects. The roadmaps will be made in a generic form with different kind of technical solutions that can be transferred to the local setup. The costs to investments and maintenance will be illustrated in business cases, that can be copied to other areas.
Expanding existing guidelines on MAR to South African conditions: MAR is already used in South Africa and international and South African guidelines exists [30; 31]. National and International guidelines will be reviewed and expanded with the new technologies developed in WP1-3 securing their further implementation (output 3.3).
Overview of the research plan
GEUS has allocated 15 months for WP1, 6 months for WP2, 10 months for WP3, and 1.5 months for WP4. UFS has allocated 3 months for WP1, 3 months for WP2, 7 months for WP3. UWC has allocated 1 months for WP1, 10 months for WP2, 12 months for WP3, and 4 months for WP4. DWS has allocated 1 months for WP1, 1 months for WP2, 5 months for WP3, and 4 months for WP4. Rambøll has allocated 1.6 months for WP4. Postdoc Nicolette Vermaak will visit Denmark two times for one month (July 2021 and March 2022) to be trained in the setup of columns (joint field work) and writing scientific publications (WP1). Dr Sumaya Israel, Dr Malikah Van der Schyff, and Dr Awodwa Magingi will visit Denmark for shorter stays also to be trained in column set up and for scientific writing. Postdoc Morten D. Schostag will visit South Africa for 1.5 month (November 2022) to be trained in applied MAR research (joint fieldwork) and a shorter stay for writing joint scientific publications (WP3).
Timetable for activities related to outputs. M# refer to the associated midterm milestones from the Logframe. DK and SA: Activities in Denmark and South Africa.
Organisation and management
MARSA brings together a consortium of one Danish (GEUS) and two South African research institutions (UFS and UWC), one South African governmental institution (DWS), and one Danish advisory company (Rambøll) all with strong complementary expertise. The inclusion of the advisory company and the governmental institution will ensure future exploitation of developed MAR technologies in South Africa and globally. An End-user Board with participation of waterworks, regional authorities and other institutions with an interest in the project will be established to connect the research activities to management, regulatory, safety, and environmental aspects of the technologies. The Danish Counsellor in South Africa, Jørgen Erik Larsen, will be invited to join the End-user Board and all project meetings.
The project will be coordinated by Professor Jens Aamand, GEUS, who has a strong research profile (h-index 34) within remediation of soil and groundwater. He has been leading several international research projects, latest the ACWAPUR project on MAR. He has participated in several projects in China on MAR as WP leader and partner. Chief Advisor Bjørn K Jensen is an expert on water, environment, natural resources, and climate. He has carried out several water projects as water specialist and as project manager in Third World countries, including SADC countries, East and West Africa, Central Asia, South East Asia, and China. Senior Researcher Ulla Elisabeth Bollmann is expert on chemical analysis and will be responsible for the analysis of organic pollutants in water. Postdoc Morten D. Schostag is expert on microbial molecular techniques and will be responsible for the analysis of ARGs.
Professor Paul Oberholster will be responsible scientist at UFS. He is expert on wetland and surface water characterization and head of Centre for Environmental Management. Dr Nicolette Vermaak will be hired as Postdoc as Principal Investigator and WP-leader of WP2. She will be responsible for the field activities in South Africa and coordination of all activities in South Africa related to transfer of columns setup from Denmark to South Africa. The Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Science at UFS have access to laboratories and other research facilities for soil science, groundwater studies, environmental management, etc. UFS will be responsible for the characterization of the associated wetlands.
Senior Lecturer Dr Sumaya Israel will be responsible scientist at UWC and WP-leader of WP3. She is expert on hydrogeochemistry, geology, analytical chemistry, and water quality assessment. She will be assisted by Senior Lecturer Dr Thokozani Kanyerere being expert on groundwater hydrology and discharge to aquifers and PhD Scholar Malikah Van Schyff. UWC will be responsible for the water quality monitoring, infiltration tests, and the chemical modelling (WP3). UWC has access to laboratories and other research facilities, such as for setting up local infiltration columns. The project will be linked to the Environmental and Water Science Department.
Scientific Manager Fanus Fourie will be responsible scientist at DWS and will contribute with his experience on governance processes and the authorisation of MAR schemes. DWS is the custodian of water in South Africa and their participation will ensure successful implementation of project results. DWS does not request funding for their activities (co-financing), which include the hiring of PhD Scholar Awodwa Mangingi assisting Dr. Nicolette Vermaak with fieldwork (WP3).
Senior Consultant Jan Kürstein will be responsible scientist at Rambøll and WP-leader of WP4. He is a hydrologist with special expertise on groundwater resource development and management. He will be assisted by Chief consultant Mads Terkelsen contributing with his expertise on MAR in developing countries from his employment as Counsellor at the Danish Embassy of China. Head of Department Marlene Ullum will contribute with profound knowledge on integrated groundwater modelling and groundwater quality.
This MARSA application has been written during the COVID19 pandemic where SKYPE meetings have shown their efficiency. To take advantage of this and to combat climate change, SKYPE or similar will be used to a larger extent than done previously. Project meetings will be held quarterly – 12 altogether of which four will be held as physical meetings – three in South Africa (including kick-off) and one in Denmark. At the project meetings each partner will show progress by presenting results to be discussed by all partners.
Capacity strengthening
The main building of capacity will consist of the establishment of a strong research collaboration between Denmark and South Africa within MAR. One South African and one Danish postdoc will be educated by MARSA strengthening their research capacities. They will travel to the corresponding countries and gain knowledge on Danish laboratory protocols and standards and South African water challenges. Experience with research management and provision of funding is required to achieve a strong research career. To strengthen the management skills of the postdocs, they will be appointed WP leaders – Morten D. Shostag for WP1 and Nicolette Vermaak for WP2. They will be guided in these duties by Prof. Jens Aamand and Prof. Paul Oberholster respectively. Towards the end of the project they will be involved in the writing of joint Danish-South African research applications to give them skills on providing research funds and the possibility to stay in research and consolidate bands between MARSA partners in the future.
The planned training of postdocs, PhD, Masters and BSc fellows provides opportunity for enhanced and continued skills exchange in the water sector in South Africa and Denmark through future partnerships. The focus on training of the young water scientists creates sustained communication pathways for skills improvements in the water sector, including improved management of groundwater and surface water ecosystems thereby achieving water security in drought-prone areas. The UFS, Centre for Environmental Management uses an integrated approach to develop the competencies of postgraduate students from all over Africa. The centre provides education and training, conduct applied research in water resource development, and offer expert services that are intricately linked and draw on each other to promote best practices in environmental and water management. MARSA will add to the capacity building at the Centre, through knowledge transfer and sharing, increased access to scientific literature, interaction with scientists from other institutions, and possible additional postgraduate students linked to the project. It would enable the researchers that are part of the project to publish articles in major peer reviewed journals, thereby improving the standing of the Centre and UFS as a research institution. UWC participates in missions for research and capacity building in several countries within the SADC region (17 countries) and beyond. Researchers and scholars will be working closely for joint fieldwork, laboratory work, and computation work including co-authoring of journal papers as per co-authorship guidelines. MARSA will add to the capacity building at UWC. The usage of groundwater for drinking water supply is very different in Denmark and South Afrika. In Denmark all drinking water comes from groundwater, while it is only 15% in South Africa [32]. Due to GEUS´ and Rambølls great expertise in groundwater exploitation and utilization, MARSA will significantly contribute to capacity strengthening in South Africa within water supply and groundwater use. As groundwater in general has a higher quality than surface waters this strengthening may result in higher share of groundwater used for drinking thus making the water supply more resistant to droughts. Finally, existing field installations and monitoring programs will be expanded considerably at the selected field sites.
Publication and dissemination strategy
Dissemination of the research results to the scientific community will take place by publishing in the best peer-reviewed international journals of the field as well as at national and international conferences, workshops, and seminars. Three joint scientific publications with authors from both South Africa and Denmark appear as outcomes (outcome 1.3, 2.3, and 3.3), but more are anticipated depending on research findings. Open access publishing will be preferred whenever possible and funding has been allocated by the partners for additional expenses related to this. Presentations at national conferences such as conferences held by the Groundwater Division of the Geological Society of South Africa, WaterNet in South Africa, and future SADC-GMI groundwater conferences will be emphasized. Furthermore, results will be communicated at two stakeholder meetings in South Africa. Altogether the dissemination activities are expected to increase recycling of water via MAR and use of groundwater for drinking in South Africa. To further support this, MARSA will provide an addendum to the South African guideline on MAR describing how MARSA technologies can be implemented in South Africa.
State of the art and rationale
Existing freshwater resources are threatened by overexploitation due to population growth, urbanisation, and climate change and many regions experience water shortage especially during dry seasons. South Africa is a water-scarce country with precipitation seasonality [1]. During the 2017-19 Southern African drought, water suppliers experienced severe difficulties supplying enough water to the population and many rivers dried out. Climate change predicts lower rainfall and higher temperatures for South Africa, which means that water scarcity will become even more critical and improved utilization of available water resources is therefore urgent.
Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) is a commonly used technique to improve water quality and to store water for later use in areas with precipitation seasonality and it is a low-energy and low-cost water-recycling technology used worldwide [2]. Water, often unfit for drinking, is infiltrated through soil and aquifer sediments, or injected directly into aquifers, thereby improving the water quality and recharging groundwater resources for later recovery. Groundwater is preferred to surface water for drinking due to higher water quality, less vulnerability to drought and pathogenic pollution, and in arid regions simply because no other water resources are available [3]. Extensive abstraction of groundwater may, however, lead to aquifer depletion, which creates derived problems including saltwater intrusion, streams impairment, wetlands desiccation, and land subsidence [4]. The only practical way to restore or prevent overexploitation of aquifers is by replenishing aquifer water by MAR and it has been estimated that the groundwater resource can be more than doubled by applying MAR [5].
A major concern with MAR is that the available source water has the potential to contaminate the aquifer with organic chemicals, and inorganic nutrients, including pesticides, personal care products, pharmaceuticals [6], and nitrogen species [7]. Some of these compounds are removed during passage of the water through the soil and sediment layers, but the rates may vary dependent on site-specific conditions [8] while others are not degraded at all [9;10]. Spreading of pathogens and antimicrobial (e.g. antibiotics) resistance genes (ARGs) is also a concern [11;12]; although these may be eliminated during MAR [13]. The mechanism behind this elimination is not fully understood. In fact, the reduction of pathogens during sediment passage depends on several processes, including deactivation, physical filtering, and adsorption/adhesion mechanisms that are influenced by both individual pathogen properties and sediment characteristics [14].
Although MAR has been used for decades, the technique is often operated as a black box without knowledge of the processes involved, which makes it difficult to use experience from one site to another. In the MARSA project, research will open the black box and identify key processes governing the leaching of bacteria, organic contaminants, and inorganic nutrients to the groundwater. This will include:
- Establishment of reactive barriers at MAR facilities to provide a sequence of redox conditions enabling more contaminants to be degraded
- Stimulation of aerobic degradation processes by adding oxidising agents during recharge of water into anaerobic aquifers
- Investigation of relevant pretreatment technologies for different water sources
- Development of a toolbox for establishing new MAR sites
- Development of an addendum to existing guidelines for establishment and long-term operation of MAR sites.
MARSA addresses specifically the call by providing next generation MAR technologies for improved and more efficient groundwater utilization. Furthermore, MARSA will unlock alternative sources of water and based on the outlined research it will provide required new monitoring schemes necessary for implementation of the technology according to the call.
The primary aim of MARSA is to develop MAR technologies that allow for a broader span of water resources to be used for MAR, including storm water, river water, saline water, and even reclaimed water (treated wastewater). The research provides establishment of new monitoring strategies for the technologies and an assessment of the water saving achieved by implementing MAR on a larger scale in South Africa with focus on the West Coast District Municipality.
It is hypothesised that improved removal of organic pollutants, nitrogen species, and pathogens can be achieved by establishment of reactive barriers or injection of oxidizing agents to anaerobic aquifers during recharge as different redox environments are thus created.
Research questions include:
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- Will the establishment of reactive barriers with, e.g. organic compost at MAR facilities cause more pollutants to be degraded?
- Can aerobic degradation processes be secured by injection of oxidising agents to anaerobic aquifers and what are the adverse effects, e.g. precipitation of metals and clogging?
- What is the salinity limit for waters to be used for MAR?
- What types of pretreatment methods could be introduced to make degradation of certain compounds even more efficient?
- What is the long-term sustainability of MAR under different geological and chemical regimes?
- What are the impacts of increased use of MAR in South Africa in terms of drinking-water availability and ecological and socio-economic benefits for water supply?
Novel approaches in MARSA include control of the MAR environment by reactive barriers and oxidizing agents without creating environments for increased spread of pathogens and antimicrobial resistance. Some water types such as reclaimed water require pretreatment for safe recycling via MAR, due to the presence of persistent organic pollutants, pathogenic bacteria, and antimicrobial resistance. Pretreatment options may include membrane filtration [15], ozonation, or UV-treatment [16]. These technologies can greatly reduce pathogens, ARGs and most organic pollutants, but they may also leave the purified water with oxidised carbon residues. This, however, can also be beneficial as carbon residues has been shown to stimulate cometabolic degradation of some organic pollutants during MAR [17].
The research will focus on the Langebaan road aquifer and Atlantis aquifer field sites, both along the West Coast of South Africa. At present MAR is not applied at the Langebaan road aquifer site, but infrastructure exists, for infiltration of nearby Berg River water, either by direct well injection or pond infiltration. As the salinity varies along the river, it is most suitable for studying at what concentrations saline water can be used directly for MAR or where a pretreatment is required. The Atlantis site in contrast, already has an active MAR system, which has been in operation for over 40 years using an inlet of a mixture of reclaimed- and storm water infiltrated via infiltration ponds. Although the site has been running successfully, there have been incidents of low-quality water entering the system and the facility could benefit largely from a built-in treatment technology to aid removing potential harmful constituents from the source water. The impacts of climate change are apparent at both sites as seen from fluctuating groundwater tables and flow velocities at the Berg River. Storage of water for later reuse by Aquifer Storage and Recovery (ASR), a variant of MAR, has therefore drawn special attention as a technology to provide safe water to the public during droughts.
The implementation of MAR may also affect the ecology of groundwater fed ecosystems, like wetlands, tributaries, and springs. The ground- and surface water bodies of these systems are tightly linked and, e.g. overexploitation of groundwater resources for ASR may cause desiccation of these ecosystems. The inverse is similarly true, if the amount of water added to the groundwater is increased rewetting may occur causing change on vegetation and wildlife. A thorough assessment of the impact of MAR on surface water ecosystems must be carried out before MAR can be implemented at a larger scale according to legal requirements. In MARSA we will use the Wetland Classification and Risk Assessment Index to assess the natural state of the surface water ecosystems of the field sites [18].
In MARSA we will carry out feasibility studies, as flow-through columns, first in Denmark (WP1) and later in South Africa (WP2), to investigate the capacity of South African aquifer sediments to remove organic pollutants, nitrogen species, pathogens, and ARGs present in the Berg River and in source water to the Atlantis-MAR facility [19; 20]. Then, based on these studies, MAR options will be further demonstrated in pilot scale at field conditions in South Africa using real source water from the sites (WP3). Finally, the potential of implementation of MAR for the groundwater resource in the West Coast District Municipality will be assessed considering the use of a broader span of water (WP4; figure 1).
Figure 1:MARSA research outline. The flags indicate whether the joint research is taking place in Denmark or South Africa.
Two postdocs will be hired, one in Denmark and one in South Africa working closely together on both the feasibility and field studies. A PhD student financed by DWS will contribute to the research collaborating with the postdocs on fieldwork in South Africa.
Relevance
The MARSA project supports the overall aim of the Danish Strategic Sector Cooperation as it contributes with knowledge to new solutions to mitigate water scarcity in South Africa. MARSA addresses specifically the announced research themes by providing next generation MAR technologies for improved and more efficient groundwater utilization. Furthermore, MARSA will unlock alternative sources of water and provide required new monitoring schemes necessary for implementation of the technology. The MARSA project relates directly to the Sustainable Development Goals 2030 in South Africa on Responsible Consumption and Production (12), Clean Water and Sanitation (6) specifically 6.3, 6.4, and 6.6.1, Life on Land (15) and Good Health and Well-being (3). Furthermore, it relates to the strategic direction and goals of the South African National Water and Sanitation Master Plan [21], National Water Resource Strategy [22], National Groundwater Strategy [23], and Artificial Recharge Strategy [24] of South Africa. The project will significantly contribute to the partners’ strategies on sustainable water-resource management including development of water-purification technologies.
Objectives
The overall objective of MARSA is to provide new water recycling tools to be used by water managers in South Africa and globally to combat water scarcity. The research builds on MAR, a water recycling technology already used in South Africa at many places. By introducing barriers at MAR facilities as well as oxidising agents to stimulate aerobic degradation processes, the range of water qualities that can be used for MAR will be increased. In the long term, more water of lower quality, including reclaimed water, may then be used for MAR allowing a larger amount of water to be reused and less discharge to aquatic ecosystems. The potentials of relevant pretreatment technologies and the determination of salinities limiting water recycling via MAR will further increase safe use of lower water qualities for MAR.
Expected outcomes and outputs
The primary outcomes of MARSA will be an extensive capacity building on MAR in South Africa, including 1) the setup of feasibility studies assessing potentials for MAR at a given location and determination of actions to be taken to improve attenuation of organic pollutants, pathogens, and ARGs (outcome 1+2), 2) Field-scale demonstration of MARSA technologies to improve pollutant attenuation (outcome 3), and 3) a model for the development of groundwater use in South Africa considering an increased range of water qualities that can be recirculated via MAR after implementation of MARSA technologies (outcome 4). Connected outputs include 1) common protocols for analysis of organic pollutants, pathogens, and ARGs, 2) reports on characterisation of field sites including geology, geohydrology, pollutants in source waters for MAR, impact of MAR on riparian ecosystems, socio-economic and legal preconditions for MAR implementation, and authorities, utilities and the public preparedness for increased use of groundwater, 4) an addendum on implementation of MARSA technologies to the existing South African MAR guideline, and 5) joint scientific publications with authors from both South Africa and Denmark.
Methodology
The project will be structured in 4 well-integrated work packages (WPs), each headed by a WP leader. WP1 focuses on the establishment of methods to assess the feasibility of different MAR applications in terms of removal of organic contaminants, pathogens, and antimicrobial resistance and further technologies to enhance the removal of these pollutants will be developed. In WP2 the effects of different MAR applications on aquifer geochemistry and microbiology will be investigated, including metal (iron and manganese) precipitation, which may cause clogging. Together, these WPs will bring progress to front-line research in MAR technologies and based on this, in WP3 the most promising MAR applications will be tested at field scale. Finally, WP4 will reach out by investigating the impact of further implementation of MAR using also lower water qualities on the increased availability of groundwater for water supply in South Africa (figure1).
Figure 2: The MARSA Column set up
WP1: Feasibility studies (GEUS, UFS) aims to develop common analytical tools to be used in both Denmark and South Africa. The research includes 1) design and operation of a model filtration reactor system that simulates MAR (output 1.1); 2) development of protocols for the analysis of organic pollutants, pathogenic indicators, and ARGs (output 1.2); 3) feasibility studies and writing of joint scientific publication (output 1.3). Several target organic pollutants will be selected based on compounds typically present in reclaimed, storm, and river waters including pharmaceuticals, antibiotics, and pesticide residues, with the emphasis on compounds present in the inlet water at the field-scale MAR facility of WP3 (Berg River water; South African reclaimed water). Analytical protocols will be developed for these pollutants based on UPLC-MS and LC-HRMS. Common protocols for the analysis of indicator pathogens and ARGs will be developed as well, the latter using qPCR of selected ARGs (e.g. blaTEM, blaCTX, ErmB, ErmF, TetA, TetM, TetW, Sul1 and Sul2). The reactor system will be built as a series of columns (6-8) with heights of 0.5 m and diameters of approximately 6 cm (figure 2), packed with sand, and seeded with fresh activated sludge from a local wastewater treatment plant. The system will function as submerged continuous flow fixed bed filters that can be operated at realistic hydraulic retention times being typical 12-24 h at MAR facilities. The columns will be equipped with sampling ports for sampling of filter material for e.g. nucleic acid extraction (DNA) and assessment of biofilm formation, and sampling of water for monitoring of O2, pH, organic pollutants, bacteria, ARGs, and other relevant parameters. The inlet will be synthetic reclaimed water added 5 to 10 organic pollutants.
The model MAR system will be used to test the feasibility of using barriers of e.g. compost, wood chips, or other residual materials to improve the attenuation of organic pollutants, pathogens, and ARGs. Furthermore, it will be tested whether addition of auxiliary carbon sources can stimulate cometabolic degradation of otherwise recalcitrant pollutants.
WP2: Effects of MAR on groundwater geochemistry and pretreatment requirements (UFS, GEUS) focuses on how infiltration of different water sources affects aquifer geochemistry, including clogging, and how to monitor this. The research will use the same MAR model system as in WP1, but here it will be setup in South Africa with the same inlet water as used in WP3. First, the columns will be setup in a South African laboratory, later at Atlantis WWTP or the Langebaan Road field site (output 2.1). The model system will be used to study the effects of adding oxidising agents, fluctuating groundwater tables, and salinities on attenuation of organic pollutants, pathogens, and ARGs, metal release and precipitation (e.g. As, Ni, Fe, and Mn), and clogging (output 2.2). Pretreatment technologies commonly used at WWTPs will be identified and evaluated in terms of enhancing pollutant removal during MAR. Based on results from laboratory columns using the actual source water on location, the need for introducing such pretreatment technologies to obtain more efficient removal of contaminants will be suggested.
WP3: Field-scale studies (UWC, UFS, GEUS, DWS) aims at testing the concepts developed in WP1-2 at larger scale. Field-scale MAR studies will be carried out at the Langebaan road aquifer and Atlantis field sites using Berg River water or mixtures of reclaimed- and stormwater respectively as source waters. The field-scale studies will be carried out using infiltration ponds or in case approval of specific treatments options cannot be granted, by use of columns on location.
Characterisation of the geology, geohydrology, and infiltration capacity: The geology and geohydrology of the Langebaan road aquifer and Atlantis sites will be characterised based on existing literature and borehole data as input to geological models (output 3.1). For the Langebaan road aquifer SkyTEM data are available and will be included as well. The infiltration capacity will be determined using permeability tests and used to select areas best suited for water infiltration either by direct well injection or via infiltration ponds. Additional drillings will be performed at these areas for further analysis of groundwater chemistry and to obtain sediments for the column experiments (WP2).
Monitoring of groundwater system and potential source water qualities: Before the establishment of the field-scale MAR facilities both potential source waters and groundwater from the two field sites will be thoroughly characterized to obtain baseline values (output 3.2). The following parameters will be determined by sampling of water from existing or drilled boreholes: inorganic constituents including trace metals (e.g. Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, Na+, Cl–, HCO3–/Alkalinity, SO42-, NO3–, As, Ni, Fe, Ni, and Mn), dissolved organic carbon (DOC), electrical conductivity (EC), and pH. The source waters (Berg River Water and Atlantis reclaimed water) will be further characterized for presence of organic pollutants (pharmaceuticals, antibiotics, pesticides), pathogens (E. coli, faecal coliforms), and ARGs as described in WP1, the latter being of special relevance to the Atlantis site.
The potential impacts of MAR on associated wetlands, pans, and springs: The Wetland Classification and Risk Assessment Index will be used to assess the natural state of groundwater surface water ecosystems at the two field sites. Based on the results suggestions for how the index can be used to assess impacts of MAR on groundwater feed ecosystems will be provided (output 3.3) as input to the MAR-guideline development of WP4.
Figure 3: Infiltration pond with monitoring wells. The Green line shows the reactive barrier
Establishment of water infiltration sites and barriers: Infiltration ponds with reactive barriers for recharge of Berg River water will be established at the site and improvement of the water quality will be measured during groundwater discharge back to the river (figure 3; output 3.4). Such system allows safe testing of the barrier concept and assessment of MAR for aquifer storage and recovery. Activities at the site include 1) establishment of infiltration ponds and monitoring wells, 2) selection of barrier material and treatment options based on results from WP1 and WP2, and 3) monitoring of selected parameters including organic pollutants, pathogens, and ARGs with time. The monitoring will take place during four intense monitoring campaigns, each one lasting 2 weeks. All partners will participate in planning and realization of these campaigns. The campaigns include sampling of sediments, groundwater from monitoring wells, and Berg River water. The samples will be analysed for the presence of inorganic constituents, selected organic pollutants, and ARGs as above. The infiltration ponds will be placed were clay layers are thin or absent based on the geological characterization (output 3.1).
The Atlantis site already has an active MAR system that recharges a mixture of reclaimed water and stormwater via infiltration ponds to the groundwater. To investigate whether this system can be improved by the incorporation reactive barriers, columns will be setup on-site and fed real reclaimed water from the same wastewater treatment plant as used for the full-scale MAR facility (output 3.2). The barrier materials and treatment options will be selected based on results from WP1 and WP2. The outlet will be analysed for selected pollutants, pathogens, and ARGs as above. Based on the results suggestions for the implementation of barriers at the Atlantis facility will be provided.
WP4: Groundwater resource development by implementation of MAR in South Africa (Rambøll, UWC, UFS, GEUS, DWS). Impacts of further implementation of MAR on the availability of groundwater for water supply in South Africa will be studied with focus on the West Coast District Municipality. The following tasks are included: 1) Modelling of the potential for MAR in the West Coast District Municipality taking into consideration MARSA technologies, available water resources, geology, and infiltration capacities , 2) expansion of existing guidelines on MAR to South African conditions, and 3) identification of socio-economic preconditions including innovation preparedness among utilities and authorities and investment potentials, and legal requirements.
Modelling the potential for MAR in the West Coast District Municipality: Groundwater accounts for only 2% of the water supply in the City of Cape Town [25; 26], but after the drought in 2018 it is intended to increase this amount substantially. The available groundwater resource will be determined for the Langebaan Road Aquifer and based on this extended to the whole West Coast District Municipality considering the different aquifer systems within the region (output 4.1). The MAR potential will then be determined based on hydraulic modelling of the infiltration capacity and surface water availability. The total water resource available, including both ground- and surface water, will be calculated for the current and future climate situations and divided into wet and dry periods. The surface water resource of the Langebaan Road Aquifer site will be calculated by an integrated surface-groundwater model supplemented by GIS-analyses of the water balance of the whole West Coast District Municipality. Both water quantities and qualities will be mapped to determine the water resources most suitable for the improved MAR developed in WP1-3. The available groundwater resource will be estimated based on state-of-the-art principles for sustainable groundwater abstraction [27; 28, 29], both for the present situation and a situation where MAR has been implemented widely. Advanced 3-D geological- and hydrological modelling that includes saltwater intrusion will be used using existing data and outcomes from WP3 as input. Based on the modelling, the impact of MAR on groundwater quantity and quality as well as groundwater dependent ecosystems will be determined.
Socio-economic preconditions: To reach out and promote further use of groundwater and MAR in the public water supply in South Africa, the cost of improved MAR utilization will be estimated including expenses to pretreatments, feasibility studies, construction, and operation and maintenance. This will be combined with a detailed mapping of socio-economic preconditions and legal requirements, innovation preparedness among utilities and authorities, and investment potentials (output 4.2). The study will include interviews with water utilities and municipalities within the West Coast District Municipality. Furthermore, the current water legislation and tariff system will be reviewed and suggestions for changes will be made if required for implementation of MAR and for increased use of groundwater in water supply at larger scale. Roadmaps for implementation of MAR in water supply will be designed for the utilities including both technical, economic and legal aspects. The roadmaps will be made in a generic form with different kind of technical solutions that can be transferred to the local setup. The costs to investments and maintenance will be illustrated in business cases, that can be copied to other areas.
Expanding existing guidelines on MAR to South African conditions: MAR is already used in South Africa and international and South African guidelines exists [30; 31]. National and International guidelines will be reviewed and expanded with the new technologies developed in WP1-3 securing their further implementation (output 3.3).
Overview of the research plan
GEUS has allocated 15 months for WP1, 6 months for WP2, 10 months for WP3, and 1.5 months for WP4. UFS has allocated 3 months for WP1, 3 months for WP2, 7 months for WP3. UWC has allocated 1 months for WP1, 10 months for WP2, 12 months for WP3, and 4 months for WP4. DWS has allocated 1 months for WP1, 1 months for WP2, 5 months for WP3, and 4 months for WP4. Rambøll has allocated 1.6 months for WP4. Postdoc Nicolette Vermaak will visit Denmark two times for one month (July 2021 and March 2022) to be trained in the setup of columns (joint field work) and writing scientific publications (WP1). Dr Sumaya Israel, Dr Malikah Van der Schyff, and Dr Awodwa Magingi will visit Denmark for shorter stays also to be trained in column set up and for scientific writing. Postdoc Morten D. Schostag will visit South Africa for 1.5 month (November 2022) to be trained in applied MAR research (joint fieldwork) and a shorter stay for writing joint scientific publications (WP3).
Timetable for activities related to outputs. M# refer to the associated midterm milestones from the Logframe. DK and SA: Activities in Denmark and South Africa.
Organisation and management
MARSA brings together a consortium of one Danish (GEUS) and two South African research institutions (UFS and UWC), one South African governmental institution (DWS), and one Danish advisory company (Rambøll) all with strong complementary expertise. The inclusion of the advisory company and the governmental institution will ensure future exploitation of developed MAR technologies in South Africa and globally. An End-user Board with participation of waterworks, regional authorities and other institutions with an interest in the project will be established to connect the research activities to management, regulatory, safety, and environmental aspects of the technologies. The Danish Counsellor in South Africa, Jørgen Erik Larsen, will be invited to join the End-user Board and all project meetings.
The project will be coordinated by Professor Jens Aamand, GEUS, who has a strong research profile (h-index 34) within remediation of soil and groundwater. He has been leading several international research projects, latest the ACWAPUR project on MAR. He has participated in several projects in China on MAR as WP leader and partner. Chief Advisor Bjørn K Jensen is an expert on water, environment, natural resources, and climate. He has carried out several water projects as water specialist and as project manager in Third World countries, including SADC countries, East and West Africa, Central Asia, South East Asia, and China. Senior Researcher Ulla Elisabeth Bollmann is expert on chemical analysis and will be responsible for the analysis of organic pollutants in water. Postdoc Morten D. Schostag is expert on microbial molecular techniques and will be responsible for the analysis of ARGs.
Professor Paul Oberholster will be responsible scientist at UFS. He is expert on wetland and surface water characterization and head of Centre for Environmental Management. Dr Nicolette Vermaak will be hired as Postdoc as Principal Investigator and WP-leader of WP2. She will be responsible for the field activities in South Africa and coordination of all activities in South Africa related to transfer of columns setup from Denmark to South Africa. The Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Science at UFS have access to laboratories and other research facilities for soil science, groundwater studies, environmental management, etc. UFS will be responsible for the characterization of the associated wetlands.
Senior Lecturer Dr Sumaya Israel will be responsible scientist at UWC and WP-leader of WP3. She is expert on hydrogeochemistry, geology, analytical chemistry, and water quality assessment. She will be assisted by Senior Lecturer Dr Thokozani Kanyerere being expert on groundwater hydrology and discharge to aquifers and PhD Scholar Malikah Van Schyff. UWC will be responsible for the water quality monitoring, infiltration tests, and the chemical modelling (WP3). UWC has access to laboratories and other research facilities, such as for setting up local infiltration columns. The project will be linked to the Environmental and Water Science Department.
Scientific Manager Fanus Fourie will be responsible scientist at DWS and will contribute with his experience on governance processes and the authorisation of MAR schemes. DWS is the custodian of water in South Africa and their participation will ensure successful implementation of project results. DWS does not request funding for their activities (co-financing), which include the hiring of PhD Scholar Awodwa Mangingi assisting Dr. Nicolette Vermaak with fieldwork (WP3).
Senior Consultant Jan Kürstein will be responsible scientist at Rambøll and WP-leader of WP4. He is a hydrologist with special expertise on groundwater resource development and management. He will be assisted by Chief consultant Mads Terkelsen contributing with his expertise on MAR in developing countries from his employment as Counsellor at the Danish Embassy of China. Head of Department Marlene Ullum will contribute with profound knowledge on integrated groundwater modelling and groundwater quality.
This MARSA application has been written during the COVID19 pandemic where SKYPE meetings have shown their efficiency. To take advantage of this and to combat climate change, SKYPE or similar will be used to a larger extent than done previously. Project meetings will be held quarterly – 12 altogether of which four will be held as physical meetings – three in South Africa (including kick-off) and one in Denmark. At the project meetings each partner will show progress by presenting results to be discussed by all partners.
Capacity strengthening
The main building of capacity will consist of the establishment of a strong research collaboration between Denmark and South Africa within MAR. One South African and one Danish postdoc will be educated by MARSA strengthening their research capacities. They will travel to the corresponding countries and gain knowledge on Danish laboratory protocols and standards and South African water challenges. Experience with research management and provision of funding is required to achieve a strong research career. To strengthen the management skills of the postdocs, they will be appointed WP leaders – Morten D. Shostag for WP1 and Nicolette Vermaak for WP2. They will be guided in these duties by Prof. Jens Aamand and Prof. Paul Oberholster respectively. Towards the end of the project they will be involved in the writing of joint Danish-South African research applications to give them skills on providing research funds and the possibility to stay in research and consolidate bands between MARSA partners in the future.
The planned training of postdocs, PhD, Masters and BSc fellows provides opportunity for enhanced and continued skills exchange in the water sector in South Africa and Denmark through future partnerships. The focus on training of the young water scientists creates sustained communication pathways for skills improvements in the water sector, including improved management of groundwater and surface water ecosystems thereby achieving water security in drought-prone areas. The UFS, Centre for Environmental Management uses an integrated approach to develop the competencies of postgraduate students from all over Africa. The centre provides education and training, conduct applied research in water resource development, and offer expert services that are intricately linked and draw on each other to promote best practices in environmental and water management. MARSA will add to the capacity building at the Centre, through knowledge transfer and sharing, increased access to scientific literature, interaction with scientists from other institutions, and possible additional postgraduate students linked to the project. It would enable the researchers that are part of the project to publish articles in major peer reviewed journals, thereby improving the standing of the Centre and UFS as a research institution. UWC participates in missions for research and capacity building in several countries within the SADC region (17 countries) and beyond. Researchers and scholars will be working closely for joint fieldwork, laboratory work, and computation work including co-authoring of journal papers as per co-authorship guidelines. MARSA will add to the capacity building at UWC. The usage of groundwater for drinking water supply is very different in Denmark and South Afrika. In Denmark all drinking water comes from groundwater, while it is only 15% in South Africa [32]. Due to GEUS´ and Rambølls great expertise in groundwater exploitation and utilization, MARSA will significantly contribute to capacity strengthening in South Africa within water supply and groundwater use. As groundwater in general has a higher quality than surface waters this strengthening may result in higher share of groundwater used for drinking thus making the water supply more resistant to droughts. Finally, existing field installations and monitoring programs will be expanded considerably at the selected field sites.
Publication and dissemination strategy
Dissemination of the research results to the scientific community will take place by publishing in the best peer-reviewed international journals of the field as well as at national and international conferences, workshops, and seminars. Three joint scientific publications with authors from both South Africa and Denmark appear as outcomes (outcome 1.3, 2.3, and 3.3), but more are anticipated depending on research findings. Open access publishing will be preferred whenever possible and funding has been allocated by the partners for additional expenses related to this. Presentations at national conferences such as conferences held by the Groundwater Division of the Geological Society of South Africa, WaterNet in South Africa, and future SADC-GMI groundwater conferences will be emphasized. Furthermore, results will be communicated at two stakeholder meetings in South Africa. Altogether the dissemination activities are expected to increase recycling of water via MAR and use of groundwater for drinking in South Africa. To further support this, MARSA will provide an addendum to the South African guideline on MAR describing how MARSA technologies can be implemented in South Africa.
